Perang cyber

Perang dunia maya/cyber War bukan lagi sekedar fiksi tapi sudah menjadi kenyataan. Perusahaan keamanan jaringan internet McAfee melaporkan saat ini telah terjadi serangan yang dilakukan melalui jaringan internet.

Dari analisa yang dilakukan, serangan yang terjadi di dunia maya ini sebagian besar bermotif politik. Bahkan saat ini banyak negara yang telah mempersenjatai diri dalam perang cyber dan menyiapkan pasukan untuk melakukan serangan secara virtual, sebelum menyerang secara fisik.

"Setidaknya ada lima negara diketahui mempersenjatai diri mereka sendiri untuk menghadapi konflik via jaringan internet yang akan terjadi di masa depan," kata Greg Day, analis utama McAfee Eropa. Negara itu adalah Inggris, Jerman, Prancis, China dan Korea Utara.

Meski belum ada definisi sebenarnya perang cyber, namun para pengamat menilai perang tersebut adalah saling serang untuk mencuri informasi rahasia suatu negara. "Jika seseorang mencuri informasi atau menanamkan bom logika, maka itu akan sulit sekali dilacak," kata Chris Wysopal dari Veracode.

AS diketahui memiliki petunjuk manual aturan dan prosedur untuk menjalankan taktik perang cyber. Hal ini diketahui ketika AS melakukan hacking terhadap seluruh jaringan cyber di Irak sebelum melakukan serangan fisik. AS dengan mudah mengetahui posisi tentara Irak, termasuk kekuatan persenjataan mereka, sehingga memudahkan operasi tentara AS.

"Kalau langsung perang fisik akan butuh biaya besar, tapi kalo perang cyber akan lebih murah dan efektif," kata Day. Ia menambahkan salah satu incaran dalam perang cyber di masa depan adalah infrastruktur, karena ini menyangkut hajat hidup orang banyak.

Sumber - Mediaindonesia

Jenayah Cyber

Siberkeganasan

Dari Wikipedia Bahasa Melayu, ensiklopedia bebas.

Lompat ke: pandu arah, gelintar

Siberkeganasan adalah sebuah istilah berkontroversi. Sesetengah pengarang memilih takrifan yang sangat menghadkan, berkaitan dengan mengaturkan kedudukan, oleh pertubuhan-pertubuhan pengganas, dari serangan gangguan terhadap sistem maklumat untuk tujuan asas melakukan kecemasan dan panik. Dengan takrifan menghadkan ini, ia susah untuk mengenalkan apa-apa contoh siberkeganasan. Siberkeganasan juga dapat ditakrifkan dengan cara lebih umum, contohnya, sebagai, “Kegunaan terancang terlebih dahulu dari aktiviti-aktiviti mengganggu, atau ugutan dari itu, terhadap komputer dan/atau rangkaian, dengan niat untuk menyebab kecederaan atau masyarakat, ideologi, agama, politik atau objektif mirip yang lanjut. Atau untuk menakut-nakutkan mana-mana orang dalam kelanjutan objektif seperti itu.” Takrifan lebar ini dicipta oleh Kevin G. Coleman of the Technolytics Institute.^[1] Istilah ini telah diciptakan oleh Barry C. Collin

Gambaran keseluruhan

Apabila Internet menjadi semakin merebak dalam semua jurusan ikhtiar manusia, individu atau kumpulan yang dapat menggunakan anonymity yang dimampu oleh ruang siber untuk mengugut warga, kumpulan khusus (iaitu dalam keahlian berasaskan etnik atau kepercayaan), masyarakat dan keseluruhan negera-negara, tanpa mewarisi ugutan penangkapan, kecedaraan, atau kematian pada penyerang yang menjadi hadir secara fizikal akan membawa.

Apabila Internet terus mengembang, dan sistem komputer terus ditugaskan lebih tanggung jawab sementara menjadi semakin kompleks dan saling bergantung, sabotaj atau keganasan melalui ruang siber boleh menjadi ugutan semakin serius.

Takrifan asas

Siberkeganasan adalah mengumpil suatu komputer dan maklumat sasaran, khususnya melalui Internet, untuk menyebabkan gangguan kecederaan dunia benar atau gangguan teruk infrastruktur.

Siberkeganasan ditakrifkan sebagai “Kegunaan terancang terlebih dahulu aktiviti-aktiviti menggangu, atau mengugut dari itu, terhadap komputer dan/atau rangkaian, dengan niat untuk menyebab kecederaan atau masyarakat, ideologi, politik atau objektif mirip yang lanjut. Atau untuk mengancam mana-mana orang dalam kelanjutan objektif seperti itu.” Takrifan ini telah diciptakan oleh Kevin G. Coleman dari Technolytics Institute.^[1]

...tergolong dari masa ke masa untuk melingkungi benda-benda seperti itu dengan hanya merosakkan sebuah laman atau pelayan web, atau menyerang sistem bukan-kritikal, menyebabkan istilah itu menjadi kurang berguna...

Ada sesetengah yang berkata siberkeganasan tidak wujud dan adalah sebenarnya suatu hal menggodam atau konflik maklumat. Mereka tidak bersetuju dengan melabelnya keganasa oleh kerana ketidakmungkinan berlakunya ketakutan, kecederaan fizikal besar, atau kematian dalam sebuah penduduk dengan menggunakan cara elektronik, menganggapkan serangan dan teknologi berlindung kini.

National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL), sebuah pertubuhan dwipemihak penggubal undang-undang dan kakitangan mereka ditubuh untuk membantu dari kesemua 50 negara mengalamatkan isu-isu penting seperti yang melibatkan ekonomi atau kawalan tanah air dengan memperuntukkan mereka dengan sebuah forum untuk menukar gagasan, mengongsi penyelidikan dan memperolehi bantuan teknikal [1] defines cyberterrorism as follows:

kegunaan teknologi oleh kumpulan pengganas dan individu untuk melanjutkan agenda mereka. Ini dapat termasuk kegunaan teknologi maklumat untuk mengatur dan melaksanakan serangan terhadap rangkaian, ke dalam sistem komputer, memperkenalkan virus pada rangkaian mudah diserang, merosakkan laman web,serangan penafian-khidmat, atau ugutan berpengganas melalui komunikasi elektronik. [2] Demitri Jesus Olmo.

[sunting] Maklumat latar belakang

Kecenderungan am pada siberkeganasan bermula pada lewat 1980-an. Apabila tahun 2000 tiba, ketakutan dan ketidakpastian mengenai pepijat alaf memuncakkan dan kecenderungan pada serangan siberpenggas berpotensi telah bertambah. Meskipun, walaupun pijat alaf adalah dengan tiada makna suatu serangan pengganas atau komplot terhadap dunai atau Amerika Syarikat, ia telah bertindak sebagai sebuah mangkin dalam mencetuskan ketatukan serangan siber dahsyat dengan skala besar. Pengulas menyatakan bahawa banyak fakta peristiwa seperti itu kelihat berubah, sering dengan laporan massa yang menokok tambah.

Serangan pengganas profail tinggi di Amerika Syarikat pada September 11, 2001 membawa pada liputan massa yang lebih ugutan siberkenagasan dalam tahun-tahun berikutnya. Liputan massa arus sering membincangkan kemungkinan serangan besar menggunakan rangkaian komputer pada infrastruktur kritikal sabotaj dengan tujuan meletakkan hidup manusia dalam bahaya atau menyebabkan gangguan pada skala negara secara lanjut atau dengan mengganggu ekonomi negara.

Pengarang seperti Winn Schwartau dan John Arquilla melaporkan telah mempunyai kejayaan kewangan agak banyak menjual buku yang menjelaskan apa yang dimaksudkan senario munasabah huru-hara disebabkan oleh siberkeganasan. Banyak pengkritik mendakwa bahawa buku-buku ini adalah tidak realistik pada taksiran mereka sama ada serangan dijelaskan (seperti cairan nuklear dan letupan bangunan kimia) berkemungkinan. Suatu benang umum di sepanjang apa yang pengkritik bertanggap sebagai penipuan siberkenagasan adalah yang bukan-kepalsuan; iaitu, apabila bencana diramalkan gagl untuk berpunca, ia hanya pergi menunjukkan bagaimana nasib baik jadinya kita, daripada mempersoalkan teori.

[sunting] Kesan

Siberkenagasan dapat mempunyai pengaruh skala besar serius pada bilangan besar orang. Ia dapat melemahkan ekonomi secara besar, oleh itu stripping it of its resources and making it more vulnerable to military attack.

Siberkenagasan juga dapat melibatkan bisnes asas internet. Seperti peruncit dan peruntuk khidmat batu-bata dan mortar, kebanyakan laman web yang menghasilkan income (sama ada oleh keiklanan, penukaran wang untuk barangan atau khidmat dibayar) dapat bertahan menghilangkan wang dalam peristiwa masa rosak diciptakan oleh penjenayah siber.

Apabila bisnes internet menambahkan kepentingan ekonomi pada negara-negara, apa yang biasanya jenayah siber menjadi lebih berkenaan politik dan oleh itu berkaitan "keganasan".

[sunting] Contoh

Salah satu contoh pengganas siber bekerja adalah apabila para pengganasa di Romania mencapai secara haram pada komputer mengawal sistem sokongan hidup di sebuah stesen penyelidikan Antartika, membahayakan 58 ahli sains. Meskipun, pesalah telah dihentikan sebelum kerosakan sebenarnya berlaku. Kebanyakan tindakan bukan politik sabotaj telah menyebabkan kerosakan kewangan dan yang lain, seperti dalam perkara di mana seorang pekerja bersungut menyebabkan pengeluaran kumbahan ke dalam air di Maroochy Shire, Australia. [3] Virus komputer telah menurun pangkat atau mematikan sesetengah sistem bukan sangat penting dalam kilang tenaga nuklear, tetapi ini tidak dipercayai telah menjadi suatu serangan sengaja dilakukan.

Lebih baru-baru ini, pada Mei 2007 Estonia telah ditaklukkan suatu siberserangan secara besar-besaran dalam kebangkitan pengalihan tugu perang Perang Dunia II Rusia dari pusat bandar Talinn. Serangan adalah suatu serangan penafian khidmat di mana laman-laman pilihan telah dihujani dengan kesesakan supaya dapat memaksa mereka secara offline; hampir semua rangkaian kementerian Estonia dan juga dua rangkaian bank Estonia telah diserang secara offline; tambahan, laman web parti politik Perdana Menteri Estonia kini Andrus Ansip mencirikan sebuah surat pengampunan dari Ansip oleh kerana mengalihkan patung peringatan. Sungguhpun spekulasi bahawa serangan telah dikoordinatkan oleh kerajaan Rusia, menteri pertahanan Estonia mengaku dia tidak mempunyai bukti memautkan serangan siber terhadap pihak berkuasa Rusia. Rusia memanggil tuduhan kelibatan ini "tidak ditemukan", dan bukan sama ada NATO ataupun pakar Jawatankuasa Eropah dapat mencari mana-mana bukti penyertaan kerajaan Rusia rasmi.^[3] Pada Januari 2008 seorang lelaki dari Estonia telah dihukum oleh kerana melancarkan serangan terhadap laman web Parti Pembaharuan Estonia dan didenda.^[4][5]

Lebih lanjutnya, pada Oktober 2007, laman web presiden Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko telah diserang oleh penggodam. Sebuah kumpulan pemuda nasionalis Rusia, Gerakan Pemuda Eruasian, mendakwa tanggung jawab.^[6]

Sejak dunia komputer adalah semakin menbesar dan masih lagi secara besar tidak dijelajahi, negara-negara yang baru dengan dunia siber menghasilkan ahli sains komputer baru yang biasanya minat pada "mencari kenikmatan". Negara-negara seperti China, Greece, India, Israel, dan Korea Selatan telah semua berada dalam spotlight terdahulunya oleh Media A.S. dengan serangan pada sistem maklumat berkaitan dengan CIA dan NSA. Walaupun serangan ini biasanya sebabnya pengacara komputer muda, Amerika Syarikat telah mempunyai lebih daripada kebimbangan sah tentang kawalan negara apabila sistem maklumat kritikal seperti itu berada di bawah serangan. Selama lima tahun, Amerika Syarikat telah mengambil suatu kepentingan lebih besar dalam melindungi sistem maklumatnya yang kritikal. Ia telah mengisukan kontrak untuk penyelidikan taraf lebih tinggi pada negara seperti Greece dan Israel, untuk membantu melindung terhadap serangan lebih serius dan bahaya.

Pada 1999 penggodam menyerang komputer-komputer NATO. Komputer-komputer itu membanjiri mereka dentgan email dan menyerang mereka dengan denial of service (DoS). Para penggodam itu telah menunjuk perasaan terhadap letupan bom NATO di Kosovo. Bisnes-bisnes, pertubuhan am dan institusi akademik telah dihujani dengan email-email bertujuan politik tinggi mengandungi virus dari negara-negara Eropah lain.^[7]

[sunting] Tindak balas

Jabatan Pertahanan AS mendakwa United States Strategic Command dengan tugas memerangi siberkeganasan. Ini telah dicapai melalui melalui Joint Task Force-Global Network Operations (JTF-GNO). JTF-GNO adalah sebuah komponen beroperasi meyokong USSTRATCOM dalam pertahanan Global Information Grid DoD. Ini dilakukan dengan menyatukan kemahiran GNO ke dalam operasi semua komputer, rangkaian, dan sistem DoD digunakan oleh DoD combatant commands, services and agencies.

Pada November 2, 2006, Setiausaha Tentera Udara mengumumkan penciptaan MAJCOM terbaru Tentera Udara, Air Force Cyber Command, yang akan ditugaskan untuk memantau dan mempertahankan kepentingan Amerika pada ruang siber. Rancangan itu meskipun telah digantikan oleh penciptaan Twenty-Fourth Air Force yang menjadi aktif pada Ogos 2009 dan akan menjadi suatu komponen United States Cyber Command yang dirancang.

Pada Disember 22, 2009, White House menggelarkan ketua White House Cyber Security sebagai Howard Schmidt. Dia akan mengkordinatkan usaha Kerajaan, ketenteraan dan pengintip A.S. untuk menangkis penggodam.

[sunting] Dalam fiksyen

• Manga siberpunk Jepun, Ghost in the Shell (dan juga wayang masyhurnya dan serapan TV) berpusat di sekitar sebuah unit anti-siberkeganasan dan jenayah siber. Dalam muatan pertengahan kurun ke-21 Jepun serangan seperti itu membuatkan lebih mengancam dengan kegunaan lebih tersebar teknologi termasuk penambahan sibernetik pada tubuh manusia membenarkan orang sendiri untuk menjadi sasaran lanjut serangan siberpengganas.
• Siberkeganasan telah dicirikan dalam Digital Fortress Dan Brown.
• Siberkeganasan telah dicirikan dalam Private Lies Amy Eastlake.
• Dalam wayang Live Free or Die Hard, John McClane (Bruce Willis) mengambil sekumpulan niat siberpengganas dengan niat mematikan keseluruhan rangkaian komputer Amerika Syarikat.
• Wayang Eagle Eye terlibat sebuah komputer hebar mengawal semua yang mempunyai elektrik dan rangkaian untuk mencapai tujuan matlamat.
• Jalan cerita 24 Day 4 dan kini Day 7 termasuk rancangan untuk melanggar grid kilang nuklear negara dan kemudian mengambil alih keseluruhan protokol infrastruktur kritikal.
• The Tom Clancy menciptakan siri Netforce adalah mengenai pasukan FBI/Ketenteraan berdedikasi memerangi siberpengganas.
• Kebanyakan jalan cerita Mega Man Battle Network berpusat di keliling siberpengganas.

[sunting] Senarai bacaan

• Alexander, Yonah Swetman, Michael S. (2001). Cyber Terrorism and Information Warfare: Threats and Responses, Transnational Publishers Inc.,U.S.. ISBN 1-57105-225-9.
• Colarik, Andrew M. (2006). Cyber Terrorism: Political and Economic Implications, Idea Group,U.S.. ISBN 1-59904-022-0.
• Verton, Dan (2003). Black Ice: The Invisible Threat of Cyber-terrorism, Osborne/McGraw-Hill,U.S.. ISBN 0-07-222787-7.
• Weimann, Gabriel (2006). Terror on the Internet: The New Arena, the New Challenges, United States Institute of Peace,U.S.. ISBN 1-929223-71-4.

[sunting] Lihat juga

• Anonymous
• Siberbuli
• Operasi siber
• Siber-hendap
• Intifada
• Internet dan keganasan
• US-CERT (United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team)
• Godaman patriot
• Siberserangan terhadap Estonia 2007
• Siberserangan sewaktu perang Ossetia Selatan 2008
• IMPACT @ ITU Global Cybersecurity Agenda

[sunting] Rujukan

1. ↑ ^{1.0 1.1} http://stinet.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA439217&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf
2. ↑ Afroz, Soobia (June 16, 2002). "Cyber terrorism — fact or fiction?". Dawn. http://www.dawn.com/weekly/dmag/archive/020616/dmag21.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-30.
3. ↑ Estonia tiada bukti kelibatan Kremlin pada serangan siber
4. ↑ "Estonia fines man for 'cyber war'", BBC, 2008-01-25. Dicapai pada 2008-02-23.
5. ↑ Leyden, John (2008-01-24), "Estonia fines man for DDoS attacks", The Register, http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/24/estonian_ddos_fine, retrieved 2008-02-22
6. ↑ Russian nationalists claim responsibility for attack on Yushchenko's Web site International Herald Tribune
7. ↑ CNN - Hackers attack U.S. government Web sites in protest of Chinese embassy bombing - May 10, 1999

[sunting] Bacaan lanjut

• Blau, John (Nov 2004) “The battle against cyberterror” NetworkWorld. Retrieved Mar 20, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.nwfusion.com/supp/2004/cybercrime/112904terror.html

• Gross, Grant (Nov 2003) “Cyberterrorist attack would be more sophisticated that past worms, expert says” ComputerWorld. Retrieved Mar 17, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.computerworld.com/securitytopics/security/story/0,10801,86857,00.html

• Poulsen, Kevin (Aug 2004) “South Pole ‘cyberterrorist’ hack wasn’t the first” SecurityFocus News. Retrieved Mar 17, 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.securityfocus.com/news/9356.

• Thevenet, Cédric (Nov 2005) "Cyberterrorisme, mythe ou réalité?". From the World Wide Web : http://www.terrorisme.net/pdf/2006_Thevenet.pdf

• U.S. Army Cyber Operations and Cyber Terrorism Handbook 1.02

[sunting] Pautan luar

[sunting] Umum

• What is Cyberterrorism? Even experts can't agree in the Harvard Law Record
• AIC Australian Institute of Criminology - Cyberterrorism
• CRS Report for Congress - Computer Attack and Cyber Terrorism - 17/10/03
• Statement for the Record of Louis J. Freeh, Director Federal Bureau of Investigation on Cybercrime - Mar 28, 2000
• Cyber-Terrorism: Propaganda or Probability?
• FBI Laboratory - Cyberterrorism: Fact or Fancy by Mark M. Pollitt
• How terrorists use the internet ABC Australia interview with Professor Hsinchun Chen on the Dark internet.
• Department of Defense Cyber Crime Center
• Documentary about Cyberterrorism (in Spanish)
• [4]
• [5]
• Cyber Terrorism by Internet Security Visionary Melih Abdulhayoglu

[sunting] Berita

• Politically Motivated Computer Crime - Current news on political hacking
• MSNBC - Hacker plan: take down the Net - Mar 3, 2000
• BBC News - Cyber terrorism 'overhyped' - 14/03/03
• BBC News - US warns of al-Qaeda cyber threat - 01/12/06
• NDTV News - Terror in cyber space toughest to check - 09/12/08
• Wanabehuman - modern militant, counter-terror use of the internet - 25/01/07
• Wanabehuman - approaches to understanding radicalization - 02/05/07

kArNiVaL iCt SaBaK beRnAm (2010)

• 
  

differences between internet,intranet and extranet

There's one major distinction between an intranet and the Internet: The Internet is an open, public space, while an intranet is designed to be a private space. An intranet may be accessible from the Internet, but as a rule it's protected by a password and accessible only to employees or other authorized users. From within a company, an intranet server may respond much more quickly than a typical Web site. This is because the public Internet is at the mercy of traffic spikes, server breakdowns and other problems that may slow the network. Within a company, however, users have much more bandwidth and network hardware may be more reliable. This makes it easier to serve high bandwidth content, such as audio and video, over an intranet. (unless you work for the United States Marine Corps. Then you don't get to watch video's. And they Block 80% of any kind of "fun" or entertaining website available on the Internet) The Extranet is a portion of an organization's Intranet that is made accessible to authorized outside users without full access to an entire organization's intranet.

HIV

virus H1N1

Network Tropology

In computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices.Network topology is defined as the interconnection of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer network.[1][2] Network Topologies can be physical or logical. Physical Topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location and cable installation. Logical topology refers to the fact that how data actually transfers in a network as opposed to its physical design.Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. This shape actually does not correspond to the actual physical design of the devices on the computer network. The computers on the home network can be arranged in a circle shape but it does not necessarily mean that it presents a ring topology.Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of physical and/or logical connections between nodes. The study of network topology uses graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.A Local Area Network (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology. Any given node in the LAN has one or more links to one or more nodes in the network and the mapping of these links and nodes in a graph results in a geometrical shape that may be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of the data flow between the nodes in the network determines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies may or may not be identical in any particular network.

Network Architecture

Network architecture is the design of a communications network. It is a framework for the specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as data formats used in its operation.In computing, the network architecture is a characteristics of a computer network. The most prominent architecture today is evident in the framework of the Internet, which is based on the Internet Protocol Suite.In telecommunication, the specification of a network architecture may also include a detailed description of products and services delivered via a communications network, as well as detailed rate and billing structures under which services are compensated.In distinct usage in distributed computing, network architecture is also sometimes used as a synonym for the structure and classification of distributed application architecture, as the participating nodes in a distributed application are often referred to as a network. For example, the applications architecture of the public switched telephone network (PSTN) has been termed the Advanced Intelligent Network. There are any number of specific classifications but all lie on a continuum between the dumb network (e.g., Internet) and the intelligent computer network (e.g., the telephone network). Other networks contain various elements of these two classical types to make them suitable for various types of applications. Recently the context aware network, which is a synthesis of the two, has gained much interest with its ability to combine the best elements of both.

Computer Network

A computer network allows sharing of resources and information among devices connected to the network. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) funded the design of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense. It was the first operational computer network in the world.[1] Development of the network began in 1969, based on designs developed during the 1960s. For a history see ARPANET, the first network.[edit] PurposeComputer networks can be used for several purposes:Facilitating communications. Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephony, video telephone calls, and videoconferencing.Sharing hardware. In a networked environment, each computer on a network can access and use hardware on the network. Suppose several personal computers on a network each require the use of a laser printer. If the personal computers and a laser printer are connected to a network, each user can then access the laser printer on the network, as they need it.Sharing files, data, and information. In a network environment, any authorized user can access data and information stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.Sharing software. Users connected to a network can access application programs on the network.

Information System

An Information System (IS) is any combination of information technology and people's activities using that technology to support operations, management, and decision-making.[1] In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, algorithmic processes, data and technology. In this sense, the term is used to refer not only to the information and communication technology (ICT) an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes[2].
Some make a clear distinction between information systems, ICT and business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology in that an information system is typically seen as having an ICT component. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes [3].
Alter argues for an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work using resources (including ICT) to produce specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information [4].
Part of the difficulty in defining the term information system is due to vagueness in the definition of related terms such as system and information. Beynon-Davies argues for a clearer terminology based in systemics and semiotics. He defines an information system as an example of a system concerned with the manipulation of signs. An information system is a type of socio-technical system. An information system is a mediating construct between actions and technology [5].
As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action.
Information systems are the primary focus of study for the information systems discipline and for organisational informatics[6].

Program Development Phase

To make a program, the programmer has to undergo several phases and which will determine how and what the program he should make.
Firstly, the programmer has to undergo the analyzing phase. In this phase, the programmer has to conduct a survey to determine the problem faced by the client and know the target user.
Then, the programmer will begin the design phase. In the design phase, the programmer has to design the program and draw them out as a pseudo code, flow chart or top down design model.
Next is the coding phase. In the coding phase, the programmer will begin his work on coding the program. The coding is usually be done by several programmer as a complex program consist of many syntax.
Testing and debugging phase are the next phase. Here the program done will be tested to ensure that is error free. The usual error is the syntax error, logic error and run-time error. This phase is also called debugging because the error occurred are also known as bug.
Finally it is the documentation phase. Documentation is also including internal documentation and marketing documentation. Internal documentation is made so that the programmer can easily edit the code in the future. It also enables other programmer to know how the program is coded so that they can also improve it. Marketing documentation is done so that the customer can have a better understanding on the program. This will also enable the potential customer to compare the program with other product and expect what they could gain from the program.

Progaming Process

IntroductionComputer programs are collections of instructions that tell a computer how to interact with the user, interact with the computer hardware and process data. The first programmable computers required the programmers to write explicit instructions to directly manipulate the hardware of the computer. This "machine language" was very tedious to write by hand since even simple tasks such as printing some output on the screen require 10 or 20 machine language commands. Machine language is often referred to as a "low level language" since the code directly manipulates the hardware of the computer.By contrast, higher level languages such as "C", C++, Pascal, Cobol, Fortran, ADA and Java are called "compiled languages". In a compiled language, the programmer writes more general instructions and a compiler (a special piece of software) automatically translates these high level instructions into machine language. The machine language is then executed by the computer. A large portion of software in use today is programmed in this fashion.We can contrast compiled programming languages with interpreted programming languages. In an interpreted programming language, the statements that the programmer writes are interpreted as the program is running. This means they are translated into machine language on the fly and then execute as the program is running. Some popular interpreted languages include Basic, Visual Basic, Perl and shell scripting languages such as those found in the UNIX environment.We can make another comparison between two different models of programming. In structured programming, blocks of programming statements (code) are executed one after another. Control statements change which blocks of code are executed next.In object oriented programming, data are contained in objects and are accessed using special methods (blocks of code) specific to the type of object. There is no single "flow" of the program as objects can freely interact with one another by passing messages.In this tutorial, we focus only on structured programming.Program StructureVirtually all structured programs share a similar overall structure:Statements to establish the start of the programVariable declarationProgram statements (blocks of code)The following is a simple example of a program written in several different programming languages. We call this the "Hello World" example since all the program does is print "Hello World" on the computer screen.LanguageExample program"C"#includevoid main() {printf("Hello World");}C++#includeint main(){coutPascalprogram helloworld (output);beginwriteln('Hello World');end.Oracle PL/SQLCREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE helloworld ASBEGINDBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE('Hello World');END;Javaclass helloworld{public static void main (String args []){System.out.println ("Hello World");}}Perl#!/usr/local/bin/perl -wprint "Hello World";Basicprint "Hello World"

Multimedia Introduction

1 INTRODUCTIONAs the name suggests, multimedia is a set of more than one media element used to produce a concrete and more structured way of communication. In other words multimedia is simultaneous use of data from different sources. These sources in multimedia are known as media elements. With growing and very fast changing information technology, Multimedia has become a crucial part of computer world. Its importance has realised in almost all walks of life, may it be education, cinema, advertising, fashion and what not.Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, computers have been restricted to dealing with two main types of data - words and numbers. But the cutting edge of information technology introduced faster system capable of handling graphics, audio, animation and video. And the entire world was taken aback by the power of multimedia.35.2 OBJECTIVESAfter going through this lesson you should be able toexplain what is multimediaunderstand the importance of individual media elementsidentify different hardware components required to run a multimediaappreciate the impact of audio in educational presentationdescribe how visual images, graphics and audio can be added to a presentationenhance the capability of multimedia through interactive video impact35.3 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?Multimedia is nothing but the processing and presentation of information in a more structured and understandable manner using more than one media such as text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Thus multimedia products can be an academic presentation, game or corporate presentation, information kiosk, fashion-designing etc. Multimedia systems are those computer platforms and software tools that support the interactive uses of text, graphics, animation, audio, or motion video. In other words, a computer capable of handling text, graphics, audio, animation and video is called multimedia computer. If the sequence and timing of these media elements can be controlled by the user, then one can name it as Interactive Multimedia.35.4 DIFFERENT MEDIA ELEMENTS(i) TextInclusion of textual information in multimedia is the basic step towards development of multimedia software. Text can be of any type, may be a word, a single line, or a paragraph. The textual data for multimedia can be developed using any text editor. However to give special effects, one needs graphics software which supports this kind of job. Even one can use any of the most popular word processing software to create textual data for inclusion in multimedia. The text can have different type, size, color and style to suit the professional requirement of the multimedia software.(ii) GraphicsAnother interesting element in multimedia is graphics. As a matter of fact, taking into consideration the human nature, a subject is more explained with some sort of pictorial/graphical representation, rather than as a large chunk of text. This also helps to develop a clean multimedia screen, whereas use of large amount of text in a screen make it dull in presentation.Unlike text, which uses a universal ASCII format, graphics does not have a single agreed format. They have different format to suit different requirement. Most commonly used format for graphics is .BMP or bitmap pictures. The size of a graphics depends on the resolution it is using. A computer image uses pixel or dots on the screen to form itself. And these dots or pixel, when combined with number of colors and other aspects are called resolution. Resolution of an image or graphics is basically the pixel density and number of colors it uses. And the size of the image depends on its resolution. A standard VGA (Virtual Graphics Arrays) screen can display a screen resolution of 640 ´ 480 = 307200 pixel. And a Super VGA screen can display up-to 1024 ´ 768 = 786432 pixel on the screen. While developing multimedia graphics one should always keep in mind the image resolution and number of colors to be used, as this has a direct relation with the image size. If the image size is bigger, it takes more time to load and also requires higher memory for processing and larger disk-space for storage.However, different graphics formats are available which take less space and are faster to load into the memory.There are several graphics packages available to develop excellent images and also to compress them so that they take lesser disk-space but use higher resolution and more colours. Packages like Adobe PhotoShop, Adobe Illustrator, PaintShop Pro etc. are excellent graphics packages. There are Graphics gallery available in CD’s (Compact Disk) with readymade images to suit almost every requirement. These images can directly be incorporated into multimedia development.(iii) AnimationMoving images have an overpowering effect on the human peripheral vision. Followings are few points for its popularity.Showing continuity in transitions:Animation is a set of static state, related to each other with transition. When something has two or more states, then changes between states will be much easier for users to understand if the transitions are animated instead of being instantaneous. An animated transition allows the user to track the mapping between different subparts through the perceptual system instead of having to involve the cognitive system to deduce the mappings.Indicating dimensionality in transitions:Sometimes opposite animated transitions can be used to indicate movement back and forth along some navigational dimension. One example used in several user interfaces is the use of zooming to indicate that a new object is "grown" from a previous one (e.g., a detailed view or property list opened by clicking on an icon) or that an object is closed or minimized to a smaller representation. Zooming out from the small object to the enlargement is a navigational dimension and zooming in again as the enlargement is closed down is the opposite direction along that dimension.Illustrating change over timeSince animation is a time-varying display, it provides a one-to-one mapping to phenomena that change over time. For example, deforestation of the rain forest can be illustrated by showing a map with an animation of the covered area changing over time.

Hardware And Software

Multimedia Concept

1 INTRODUCTIONAs the name suggests, multimedia is a set of more than one media element used to produce a concrete and more structured way of communication. In other words multimedia is simultaneous use of data from different sources. These sources in multimedia are known as media elements. With growing and very fast changing information technology, Multimedia has become a crucial part of computer world. Its importance has realised in almost all walks of life, may it be education, cinema, advertising, fashion and what not.Throughout the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s, computers have been restricted to dealing with two main types of data - words and numbers. But the cutting edge of information technology introduced faster system capable of handling graphics, audio, animation and video. And the entire world was taken aback by the power of multimedia.35.2 OBJECTIVESAfter going through this lesson you should be able toexplain what is multimediaunderstand the importance of individual media elementsidentify different hardware components required to run a multimediaappreciate the impact of audio in educational presentationdescribe how visual images, graphics and audio can be added to a presentationenhance the capability of multimedia through interactive video impact35.3 WHAT IS MULTIMEDIA?Multimedia is nothing but the processing and presentation of information in a more structured and understandable manner using more than one media such as text, graphics, animation, audio and video. Thus multimedia products can be an academic presentation, game or corporate presentation, information kiosk, fashion-designing etc. Multimedia systems are those computer platforms and software tools that support the interactive uses of text, graphics, animation, audio, or motion video. In other words, a computer capable of handling text, graphics, audio, animation and video is called multimedia computer. If the sequence and timing of these media elements can be controlled by the user, then one can name it as Interactive Multimedia.35.4 DIFFERENT MEDIA ELEMENTS(i) TextInclusion of textual information in multimedia is the basic step towards development of multimedia software. Text can be of any type, may be a word, a single line, or a paragraph. The textual data for multimedia can be developed using any text editor. However to give special effects, one needs graphics software which supports this kind of job. Even one can use any of the most popular word processing software to create textual data for inclusion in multimedia. The text can have different type, size, color and style to suit the professional requirement of the multimedia software.(ii) GraphicsAnother interesting element in multimedia is graphics. As a matter of fact, taking into consideration the human nature, a subject is more explained with some sort of pictorial/graphical representation, rather than as a large chunk of text. This also helps to develop a clean multimedia screen, whereas use of large amount of text in a screen make it dull in presentation.Unlike text, which uses a universal ASCII format, graphics does not have a single agreed format. They have different format to suit different requirement. Most commonly used format for graphics is .BMP or bitmap pictures. The size of a graphics depends on the resolution it is using. A computer image uses pixel or dots on the screen to form itself. And these dots or pixel, when combined with number of colors and other aspects are called resolution. Resolution of an image or graphics is basically the pixel density and number of colors it uses. And the size of the image depends on its resolution. A standard VGA (Virtual Graphics Arrays) screen can display a screen resolution of 640 ´ 480 = 307200 pixel. And a Super VGA screen can display up-to 1024 ´ 768 = 786432 pixel on the screen. While developing multimedia graphics one should always keep in mind the image resolution and number of colors to be used, as this has a direct relation with the image size. If the image size is bigger, it takes more time to load and also requires higher memory for processing and larger disk-space for storage.However, different graphics formats are available which take less space and are faster to load into the memory.There are several graphics packages available to develop excellent images and also to compress them so that they take lesser disk-space but use higher resolution and more colours. Packages like Adobe PhotoShop, Adobe Illustrator, PaintShop Pro etc. are excellent graphics packages. There are Graphics gallery available in CD’s (Compact Disk) with readymade images to suit almost every requirement. These images can directly be incorporated into multimedia development.(iii) AnimationMoving images have an overpowering effect on the human peripheral vision. Followings are few points for its popularity.Showing continuity in transitions:Animation is a set of static state, related to each other with transition. When something has two or more states, then changes between states will be much easier for users to understand if the transitions are animated instead of being instantaneous. An animated transition allows the user to track the mapping between different subparts through the perceptual system instead of having to involve the cognitive system to deduce the mappings.Indicating dimensionality in transitions:Sometimes opposite animated transitions can be used to indicate movement back and forth along some navigational dimension. One example used in several user interfaces is the use of zooming to indicate that a new object is "grown" from a previous one (e.g., a detailed view or property list opened by clicking on an icon) or that an object is closed or minimized to a smaller representation. Zooming out from the small object to the enlargement is a navigational dimension and zooming in again as the enlargement is closed down is the opposite direction along that dimension.Illustrating change over timeSince animation is a time-varying display, it provides a one-to-one mapping to phenomena that change over time. For example, deforestation of the rain forest can be illustrated by showing a map with an animation of the covered area changing over time

Software Requiment

A Software Requirements Specification (SRS) is a complete description of the behavior of the system to be developed. It includes a set of use cases that describe all the interactions the users will have with the software. Use cases are also known as functional requirements. In addition to use cases, the SRS also contains non-functional (or supplementary) requirements. Non-functional requirements are requirements which impose constraints on the design or implementation (such as performance engineering requirements, quality standards, or design constraints

Hardware Requiment For Network

IntroductionThis is a continuation of my series of articles on the terms and concepts that are frequently asked in IT interviews. This article is an attempt to discuss the salient terminologies and concepts related to Computer networking that are often asked in interviews. Although an article on Computer Networking concepts and terms would run for many pages, I have discussed only important ones to make it fit in one article.Computer NetworkA Computer Network implies two or more computers those are linked together through some software, hardware, etc for the purpose of exchanging data and information.InternetThe Internet is a network of networks. It is "the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP)."World Wide Web The World Wide Web or WWW is a hypertext based distributed information system. It "is the global network of hypertext (HTTP) servers that allow text, graphics, audio and video files to be mixed together." It is an "information space in which the items of interest, referred to as resources, are identified by global identifiers called Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI)." According to Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web, "The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of human knowledge."ModemA modem is a modulator-demodulator device that is used for converting the transmission signals from digital to analog for transmission over voice-grade phone lines. While the digital signals are converted to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication at the source, the reverse happens at the destination where these analog signals are returned to their original digital form.Network Interface ControllerA network card, network adapter or the Network Interface Controller (NIC) is a piece of computer hardware that facilitates the systems in a network to communicate.BroadcastingWhen the information transfer is from one system to many systems using the same means of transfer then such a network is known as a Broadcasting or Multicasting.UnicastingWhen the information transfer is from one system to any other single system using the same means of transfer then such a network is known as Point-to-Point or Unicasting.BandwidthNetwork bandwidth or network throughput is a measure of the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can pass through a network interface over a specific period of time. This is expressed in bits per second or bps.BroadbandThis is a wide-band technology that is capable of supporting voice, video and data. It is "a transmission medium capable of supporting a wide range of frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. It can carry multiple signals by dividing the total capacity of the medium into multiple, independent bandwidth channels, where each channel operates only on a specific range of frequencies."Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)Integrated Services Digital Network, an international standard for end-to-end digital transmission of voice, data, and signaling facilitates very high-speed data transfer over existing phone lines.Network Load BalancingNetwork Load Balancing may be defined as a technique that "distributes the network traffic along parallel paths to maximize the available network bandwidth while providing redundancy."Local Area NetworkLAN also known as Local Area Network are networks restricted on the bases of the area they cover. These networks stretch around an area of 10 meters to 1 km. "LANs enabled multiple users in a relatively small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access shared resources such as file servers and printers." The commonly used LAN devices include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders, bridges, LAN switches, and routers.Metropolitan Area NetworkMAN also known, as Metropolitan Area Network is a network that is larger than LANs spreading across an area of 1 km to 10kms. A simple example for this type of network is the branches of a bank spread across the city and are connected for information exchange.Wide Area NetworkWAN also known, as Wide Area Network is a network that is larger than a MAN, it spreads across an area of 100kms to 1000 kms. "A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer." A simple example for these networks is the network of a huge IT company, which contains branches all over the world with all its branches connected to each other.Wireless NetworksWireless Networks are those networks wherein the interconnection between two systems is not physical. The computers that interchange information are not physically linked with wires.BluetoothBluetooth is a wireless network that has a short range and can be used to connect a system with its internal components like monitor, mouse, CPU, etc without actually having a plug in. Components that support the Bluetooth technology can be detected whenever they are in the detectable range.RoutingWhen there are multiple paths between the sender and the receiver the best path for sending the information has to be chosen. The choice is made based on a number of criteria like the number of hops between the systems or on the physical distance between the systems. This process of finding the best path is known as routing.

Basic Concept

IntroductionThis is a continuation of my series of articles on the terms and concepts that are frequently asked in IT interviews. This article is an attempt to discuss the salient terminologies and concepts related to Computer networking that are often asked in interviews. Although an article on Computer Networking concepts and terms would run for many pages, I have discussed only important ones to make it fit in one article.Computer NetworkA Computer Network implies two or more computers those are linked together through some software, hardware, etc for the purpose of exchanging data and information.InternetThe Internet is a network of networks. It is "the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP)."World Wide Web The World Wide Web or WWW is a hypertext based distributed information system. It "is the global network of hypertext (HTTP) servers that allow text, graphics, audio and video files to be mixed together." It is an "information space in which the items of interest, referred to as resources, are identified by global identifiers called Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI)." According to Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web, "The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of human knowledge."ModemA modem is a modulator-demodulator device that is used for converting the transmission signals from digital to analog for transmission over voice-grade phone lines. While the digital signals are converted to a form suitable for transmission over analog communication at the source, the reverse happens at the destination where these analog signals are returned to their original digital form.Network Interface ControllerA network card, network adapter or the Network Interface Controller (NIC) is a piece of computer hardware that facilitates the systems in a network to communicate.BroadcastingWhen the information transfer is from one system to many systems using the same means of transfer then such a network is known as a Broadcasting or Multicasting.UnicastingWhen the information transfer is from one system to any other single system using the same means of transfer then such a network is known as Point-to-Point or Unicasting.BandwidthNetwork bandwidth or network throughput is a measure of the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can pass through a network interface over a specific period of time. This is expressed in bits per second or bps.BroadbandThis is a wide-band technology that is capable of supporting voice, video and data. It is "a transmission medium capable of supporting a wide range of frequencies, typically from audio up to video frequencies. It can carry multiple signals by dividing the total capacity of the medium into multiple, independent bandwidth channels, where each channel operates only on a specific range of frequencies."Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)Integrated Services Digital Network, an international standard for end-to-end digital transmission of voice, data, and signaling facilitates very high-speed data transfer over existing phone lines.Network Load BalancingNetwork Load Balancing may be defined as a technique that "distributes the network traffic along parallel paths to maximize the available network bandwidth while providing redundancy."Local Area NetworkLAN also known as Local Area Network are networks restricted on the bases of the area they cover. These networks stretch around an area of 10 meters to 1 km. "LANs enabled multiple users in a relatively small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access shared resources such as file servers and printers." The commonly used LAN devices include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders, bridges, LAN switches, and routers.Metropolitan Area NetworkMAN also known, as Metropolitan Area Network is a network that is larger than LANs spreading across an area of 1 km to 10kms. A simple example for this type of network is the branches of a bank spread across the city and are connected for information exchange.Wide Area NetworkWAN also known, as Wide Area Network is a network that is larger than a MAN, it spreads across an area of 100kms to 1000 kms. "A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and that often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer." A simple example for these networks is the network of a huge IT company, which contains branches all over the world with all its branches connected to each other.Wireless NetworksWireless Networks are those networks wherein the interconnection between two systems is not physical. The computers that interchange information are not physically linked with wires.BluetoothBluetooth is a wireless network that has a short range and can be used to connect a system with its internal components like monitor, mouse, CPU, etc without actually having a plug in. Components that support the Bluetooth technology can be detected whenever they are in the detectable range.RoutingWhen there are multiple paths between the sender and the receiver the best path for sending the information has to be chosen. The choice is made based on a number of criteria like the number of hops between the systems or on the physical distance between the systems. This process of finding the best path is known as routing.

Function OS

The main functions of an OS include:In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application a turn.It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.It handles and monitors input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks, printers, and dial-up ports. [8]It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so that the initiating application is freed from this work.On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.Scheduling the activities of the CPU and resources to achieve efficiency and prevention of deadlock

Operating System

An operating system is the software on a computer that manages the way different programs use its hardware, and regulates the ways that a user controls the computer.[1][2] Operating systems are found on almost any device that contains a computer with multiple programs—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers. Some popular modern operating systems for personal computers include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux[3] (see also: list of operating systems, comparison of operating systems).Because early computers were often built for only a single task, operating systems did not exist in their proper form until the 1960s.[4] As computers evolved into being devices that could run different programs in succession, programmers began putting libraries of common programs (in the form of computer code) onto the computer in order to avoid duplication and speed up the process. Eventually, computers began being built to automatically switch from one task to the next. The creation of runtime libraries to manage processing and printing speed came next, which evolved into programs that could interpret different types of programming languages into machine code. When personal computers by companies such as Apple Inc., Atari, IBM and Amiga became popular in the 1980s, vendors began adding features such as software scheduling and hardware maintenance.An operating system can be divided into many different parts. One of the most important parts is the kernel, which controls low-level processes that the average user usually cannot see: it controls how memory is read and written, the order in which processes are executed, how information is received and sent by devices like the monitor, keyboard and mouse, and deciding how to interpret information received by networks. The user interface is the part of the operating system that interacts with the computer user directly, allowing them to control and use programs. The user interface may be graphical with icons and a desktop, or textual, with a command line. Another similar feature is an Application programming interface, which is a set of services and code libraries that let applications interact with one another, as well as the operating system itself. Depending on the operating system, many of these components may not be considered an actual part. For example, Windows considers its user interface to be part of the operating system, while many versions of Linux do not.

Primary Storage

[edit] Primary storageDirect links to this section: Primary storage, Main memory, Internal Memory.Primary storage (or main memory or internal memory), often referred to simply as memory, is the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner.Historically, early computers used delay lines, Williams tubes, or rotating magnetic drums as primary storage. By 1954, those unreliable methods were mostly replaced by magnetic core memory, which was still rather cumbersome. Undoubtedly, a revolution was started with the invention of a transistor, that soon enabled then-unbelievable miniaturization of electronic memory via solid-state silicon chip technology.This led to a modern random-access memory (RAM). It is small-sized, light, but quite expensive at the same time. (The particular types of RAM used for primary storage are also volatile, i.e. they lose the information when not powered).As shown in the diagram, traditionally there are two more sub-layers of the primary storage, besides main large-capacity RAM:Processor registers are located inside the processor. Each register typically holds a word of data (often 32 or 64 bits). CPU instructions instruct the arithmetic and logic unit to perform various calculations or other operations on this data (or with the help of it). Registers are technically among the fastest of all forms of computer data storage.Processor cache is an intermediate stage between ultra-fast registers and much slower main memory. It's introduced solely to increase performance of the computer. Most actively used information in the main memory is just duplicated in the cache memory, which is faster, but of much lesser capacity. On the other hand it is much slower, but much larger than processor registers. Multi-level hierarchical cache setup is also commonly used—primary cache being smallest, fastest and located inside the processor; secondary cache being somewhat larger and slower.Main memory is directly or indirectly connected to the central processing unit via a memory bus. It is actually two buses (not on the diagram): an address bus and a data bus. The CPU firstly sends a number through an address bus, a number called memory address, that indicates the desired location of data. Then it reads or writes the data itself using the data bus. Additionally, a memory management unit (MMU) is a small device between CPU and RAM recalculating the actual memory address, for example to provide an abstraction of virtual memory or other tasks.As the RAM types used for primary storage are volatile (cleared at start up), a computer containing only such storage would not have a source to read instructions from, in order to start the computer. Hence, non-volatile primary storage containing a small startup program (BIOS) is used to bootstrap the computer, that is, to read a larger program from non-volatile secondary storage to RAM and start to execute it. A non-volatile technology used for this purpose is called ROM, for read-only memory (the terminology may be somewhat confusing as most ROM types are also capable of random access).Many types of "ROM" are not literally read only, as updates are possible; however it is slow and memory must be erased in large portions before it can be re-written. Some embedded systems run programs directly from ROM (or similar), because such programs are rarely changed. Standard computers do not store non-rudimentary programs in ROM, rather use large capacities of secondary storage, which is non-volatile as well, and not as costly.Recently, primary storage and secondary storage in some uses refer to what was historically called, respectively, secondary storage and tertiary storage

Storage

Storage
Computer data storage, often called storage or memory, refers to computer components, devices, and recording media that retain digital data used for computing for some interval of time. Computer data storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer, that of information retention. It is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers, and coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor), implements the basic computer model used since the 1940s.In contemporary usage, memory usually refers to a form of semiconductor storage known as random-access memory (RAM) and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. Similarly, storage today more commonly refers to mass storage — optical discs, forms of magnetic storage like hard disk drives, and other types slower than RAM, but of a more permanent nature. Historically, memory and storage were respectively called main memory and secondary storage. The terms internal memory and external memory are also used.The contemporary distinctions are helpful, because they are also fundamental to the architecture of computers in general. The distinctions also reflect an important and significant technical difference between memory and mass storage devices, which has been blurred by the historical usage of the term storage. Nevertheless, this article uses the traditional nomenclature.

Instalation Anti Virus

Install anti-virus software
Prevent virus infections
Anti-virus software is one of the main defences against online problems. It continually scans for viruses, including Trojans and worms. To be effective it must be kept up-to-date.
Why install anti-virus software?
Without anti-virus software you are very vulnerable to computer viruses, including:
Infected email attachments.
Drive-by infections caused by visiting corrupt websites.
Viruses that attack over the internet (“worms”).
Spyware that is introduced by virus infections.
Viruses that are spread using macros in application documents.
Depending on the software you use, it may detect some (but not all) spyware.
Being infected by a virus can have very serious consequences including:
Identity theft.
Fraud.
Loss of data.
A slow or unusable computer.
What anti-virus software does
Anti-virus software covers the main lines of attack:
It scans incoming emails for attached viruses.
It monitors files as they are opened or created to make sure they are not infected.
It performs periodic scans of every file on the computer.
What anti-virus software does NOT do
Anti-virus software will not protect you against:
Programs that you choose to install that may contain unwanted features.
Spam.
Against any kind of fraud or criminal activity online.
A hacker trying break into your computer over the internet.
It is not effective if it is switched off for any reason.
It is less effective (and mostly useless) if it is not kept up-to-date with the latest virus signatures.
A virus signature is like a criminal’s mugshot. Each time a new virus is released, security firms analyse it and create a new signature that lets anti-virus software block the new virus.
How to choose anti-virus software
For personal and home office use there are a number of basic choices that you can take to decide which anti-virus software to buy.
Standalone anti-virus or security suite?
Most anti-virus software companies sell a standalone program that only scans for viruses as well as security suite packages that include other protective software such as a firewall, spam filtering, anti-spyware and so on.
Generally the standalone packages cost around £20 and full suites run from £40-50.
Advantages of a suite: a suite should cover all the bases, share a single user interface and be easier and cheaper than buying each individual program separately.
Drawbacks: while the anti-virus component should be good, sometimes the other elements in a suite aren’t as good as the best of breed software from other suppliers. Also, some of the other components may be available for free.
For beginners, it is probably best to buy a suite.
For more sophisticated users, consider a pick-and-mix approach and buy a standalone anti-virus product (but don’t forget the other defences).
Free or commercial?
There are a number of anti-virus products that are free for personal or non-commercial use.
In most cases, these ‘free’ products are scaled-back versions of commercial products to which the software manufacturer hopes you will, one day, upgrade.
Advantages: price.
Drawbacks include: limited or no technical support; reduced functionality, for example in scheduling full scans; not from market-leading brands.
Unless getting free software is critical, it is preferable to buy a fully-supported commercial product.
Download free evaluation software
Several software developers offer free downloadable trial versions of their software that range from 3 to 12 months. A list of links to the download pages is available on Microsoft’s website.
How to evaluate anti-virus software
The main criteria are:
Price.
Review on reputable technical websites such as Cnet.
How easy it is to set up and use.
Level and quality of technical support, including the support website.
Frequency and responsiveness of signature updates. This is hard for most people to evaluate but well-known and reputable software companies should be okay.
How to buy anti-virus software
Then it is a matter of buying it or downloading it. Suppliers include: high street retailers, online retailers or direct purchase and download from the software developers over the internet.
Business anti-virus software
For networks of five or more computers and for business use, you should consider business versions of popular anti-virus software that are designed to make installation, updating and management easier on multiple computers.

Instalation Office 2007

How to install individual 2007 Office features
loadTOCNode (2, 'moreinformation');

Typically, when you first try to use a feature that is not installed, the 2007 Office program installs the feature automatically. If the feature that you want is not automatically installed, follow these Steps:
Exit all programs.
Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
If you are running Microsoft Windows Vista or Microsoft Windows 7, do the Following:
Click Programs, and then click Uninstall a program.
Click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change. In this item, Edition is a placeholder for the edition of Office that you installed.Note In Classic view on Windows Vista or in Icon view on Windows 7, double-click Programs and Features, click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change.If you are running Microsoft Windows XP, do the Following:
Click Add or Remove Programs.
Click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change.Note In Classic view, double-click Add or Remove Programs, click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change .
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How to repair problems in the installed Office 2007 programs and features
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You can use either of the Following Methods to detect and to repair problems that are associated with installed Microsoft Office programs and features, such as registry settings and missing installation files. You can not use these methods to repair personal files.
Method 1: Run Office Diagnostics from a 2007 Office program
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Start the Office Diagnostics tool. To do this, use either of the Following Methods:
For a menu-based 2007 Office program, click Office Diagnostics on the Help menu.
For a Grim-based 2007 Office program, follow these Steps:
Click the Microsoft Office Button, and then click Program Options.Note In this option, Program represents the name of the program.
In the Navigation Pane, click Resources.
Click Diagnose.
Click Continue.
Click Start Diagnostics. If the Office Diagnostics tool identifies a problem, it tries to fix the problem.
When the Office Diagnostics tool finishes, click Close.Note If you can not run Office Diagnostics from a 2007 Office program, see the "How to run Office Diagnostics from the Start menu in the Reference section.
Method 2: Run the Detect and Repair tool from Add or Remove Programs
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Click Start, and then click Control Panel.
If you are running Microsoft Windows Vista or Microsoft Windows 7, do the Following:
Click Programs, and then click Uninstall a program.
Click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change.
Click Repair, and then click Continue. Note In Classic view on Windows Vista or in Icon view on Windows 7, double-click Programs and Features. Click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change. Click Repair, and then click Continue.If you are running Microsoft Windows XP, do the Following:
Click Add or Remove Programs.
Click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change.
Click Repair, and then click Continue. Note In Classic view, double-click Add or Remove Programs, click the name of the Microsoft Office Edition 2007 you want to change, and then click Change. Click Repair, and then click Continue